The Marketing Strategies Of Dell Inc Commerce Essay

The Marketing Strategies Of Dell Inc Commerce Essay Competitive advantage and market superiority tends to be among the top of the list of priorities of any business or commercial entity nowadays. Dell as a company has often been viewed as having a singular strategy, manufacturing build and selling products that are cheaper and more efficient than its competitors. In 1984, with only $1,000 in startup capital, Michael Dell established Dell as the first company in its industry to sell custom-built computers directly to end users, bypassing the dominant system of using resellers to sell mass produced computers. The following will explain how Dell utilizes the direct business model which increase the speed to market, superior customer service and dedication, and how Dell applies the latest technology more efficiently than the leading competitors. Since a young age Michael Dell has been intrigued and fascinated in the idea of eliminating unnecessary steps. So it was not surprising when he established a company where there marketing strategy was based on eliminating the middleman. We sell computers directly to our consumers, deals directly with our suppliers, and communicate directly with our people, all without the unnecessary and inefficient presence of intermediaries. We call this the direct model, and it has taken us, to use a common phrase at Dell Computer Corporation, direct to the top (Dell, xvii). The direct business model eliminates retailers that add unnecessary time and cost, that could diminish Dells understanding of customer expectations. The direct model allows Dell to build every system in order to provide customers more powerful, better configured systems at competitive prices. Dells direct business model is based on direct selling, eliminating the use of resellers and channels of retail. Dell was able to build brand loyalty amongst its consumers over a period of time through building direct relationships with them, constantly speaking to customers, and analyzing their preferences when purchasing a product. Through building these direct relationships which is a key component of the direct business method, Dell was able to understand and analyze the specific preferences of their consumers to satisfy their needs and wants. Expanding on the theme, Michael Dell expresses the emphasis of using the direct method thru direct relationship marketing: With an average of approximately 1,400 telephone calls received daily, Dell gets real-time input from its customers regarding their product and service requirement, their views on various products in the market, and their response to Company advertising. This input gives the Company a competitive advantage in tailoring its product offerings and communication programs to meet its customers needs. Direct relationship marketing also eliminates the 25% to 45% dealer mark-up, thereby enabling the Company to price its products aggressively. In addition, the Companys marketing strategy allows it to sell its products through Company employees who are trained specifically to sell Dell product.(Dell, 31) The efficiency of the direct business model by of direct marketing relationships benefited Dell tremendously. Rather than doing guesswork on what they thought customers wanted; they were able to find out exactly what customers desired and preferred. So not only was Dell able to manufacture the products that customers wanted, but they were also able to develop them at high quality. Our ability to produce a line of high performance products compatible with accepted IBM standards.( In fact, many of our products had performance features that were superior to IBM systems, and were frequently top-ranked by publication such as PC Magazine and PC World.) (Dell. 31) Dell has been able to excel ahead of its competitors through the use of the direct model. One key strength that gave Dell a competitive advantage according to Michael Dell was, Michael Dells focus on concrete issues like cutting operation costs, improving delivery time, and maintaining customer service is the underlying force that has driven the company. Michael Dells establishment of the direct model, as well as his exploitation of the benefits of the Internet, has contributed vitally to the companys successes in both the US and overseas markets. (Richard San Juan, Gaebler Ventures) In 1998, Dell became the number two manufacturers and marketer of personal computers in the world. Michael Dell was able to take his company that he started with the little money he earned in college, and turn it into one of the most profitable companys today. Dell grew five times faster than the industry rate. Stocks rose more than two hundred percent, which is the largest share gain in the SP 500 and NASDAQ 100. In the chart below, statistics shows that Dell has been able to thrive within the PC market, having the second largest market shares behind Hewlett-Packard in 2009. Although this chart is from the first quartile of 2009, in 2010 Dells market shares increased by 12.6 percent. Dells market share in U.S. and Worldwide (in Q1 2009) compared to other top PC makers.( Dells Direct Model to Success Dells Business Plan, San Juan) Dell has been able to excel ahead of its competition within their industry. They were able to do this because companies continued to guess what products their customers actually wanted, Dell was already aware of their customers wants and needs for their products. Dell had the upper hand on its competitors because other companys were manufacturing product based on the assumptions. Companies such as HP, Acer, Toshiba, Gateway, and Apple were losing a lot of capital. This is from their lack of knowledge of the consumers. Although many analyst may have criticized Dells marketing strategy as one that is very simple and basic, it has been proven to be very efficient. Dell continues to maintain market leadership and profitable growth, and continues to reach out to new markets. Although later on in the text we will get into how Dell marketing strategies were incorporated thru the Internet, information and communication technologies and the Internet are greatly used in its direct business model. In the figure below of The Delta Model Map, the three major categories of Dells core competencies are shown. These three major categories are system lock in, best products, and total customer solution. The strengths and capabilities of Dells company can be seen on the map. The Delta Model maps identifies three major categories of an organizations core competencies.( Dells e-Marketing Strategies to Enhance Competitiveness, Chen) System Lock-In is the ability for a company like Dell to lock-in customers. Having customers that are brand loyal and continuously purchase products from that company such as Dell is to be lock-in. Dell having websites, and phone numbers for customers to assist them with any issues they may have increases the trust and loyalty customers have for the company. Best Product- is products or services that are perceived by customers to be more efficient in the areas of quality, feature, functionality, sales services, and cost leadership. Dell provides customer with high quality prices at low cost because they take part in direct sales. Total Customer Solution- The ability of an organization to offer and deliver integrated solutions to meet customer needs and satisfaction. Solutions comprises of products or services, products coupled with services, and customer integration and engagement business processes.( Dells Direct Model to Success Dells Business Plan, San Juan) Dell also introduces the latest relevant technology much more quickly than companies with slow moving, indirect distribution channels, and turning over inventory every three days on average. Dell success is due in part to that they always had the willingness to look at things differently. In the industry that they are in that is important, and to stay motivated. This is important because when Dell first began using the Internet and expanding their business, many people said that it would not work. These were the same people who had doubted the direct business model and said it would fail. When Dell first began using the Internet to expand their business they had three objectives: to make it easier to do business with Dell, to reduce the cost of doing business with Dell, and to enhance our customer relationship.(Dell, 101) By using the Internet to help quicken the speed of information flowing between companies, made it possible to obtain precision and speed to market for products and services in very positive way. Internet marketing or e-marketing strategies can be defined as the design of marketing strategies that capitalizes on the organizations electronic or information technology capabilities to reach specified objectives. (Strauss et al, 2006, pg. 41). With the use of communication and technology, Dell has been able obtain customers information and history and store it in a warehouse. This information can be retrieved and accessed anytime for reporting issues. This data system warehouse serves as the safe of Dells marketing knowledge management system. So this is where Dell employee go to when analyzing customers behaviors and trends. Understand the behavior of the customers is a very critical part in Dells marketing strategy. So thru having this data systems warehouse and the use of the direct business model, Dell is able to deliver the best experience to customers, whether its online or in stores. The deliverables of the customer experience objective are: Best value proposition,; highest quality and most relevant technologies; customized systems; superior tailored service and support Products and services that are easy to buy (online 247) and use. (Dells Direct Model to Success Dells Business Plan, San Juan) Dell divides their customers into two major groups, relationship and transactional. These two groups are very essential in the success of Dells products. Relationship customers are customers who buy repeatedly and in larger quantities or value, while Transactional customers are customers who buy less frequently and in smaller quantities or value. Both Relationship and Transactional customers are further sub-segmented. (Dell Marketing Strategies, Cage)

Malczewski and the ideas of Young Polnd

According to Satanists Stopcock. The break of the 19th and 20th centuries in Poland was a time well known for the problem that many artists who represented that period had: they were constantly looking for their own truth(s), they own way(s), their own style. They developed into two main categories, those who made work for â€Å"today', that fulfilled itself during the lives of the artists and those who tried to develop a new style (Art Novel to be precise) and regime for creating aesthetic forms and applied art.It's appropriate to add that the latter, that was created with the intention of a style was crushed by steel constructions and/or lost it's truth on the production line, leaving It simply a historical phenomenon. I however will concentrate on the former. The Young Poland art movement, that was centered In Kara?w and took place in the years 1891-1918 and is widely accepted as the Polish version of modernism. (1) I shall start with a bit of cultural and historical context.The last decades of the XIX century and the first 1 5 years of the Sixth, were said to be the worst time for post- partition Poland, but also a period full of hope and a slow gathering of collective activism after an opaque of complete hopelessness. Various factors led to Pollard's politics not being taken into account in the scheme of European politics, but rather left to be resolved internally by the Probationers ( ).These factors included the fall of the January Uprising, the creation of the victorious and united Bismarck Reich the French-Russian alliance and the military and political failures of Austria, which led the Austrian partition to be more and more jumbles and dependent on Germany. This turn of events In combination with a respiratory atmosphere and the loss of hope for a better future, due to the Inability to accept defeat, led to the overall loss of patriotic morale and the formation of so called â€Å"tribalism†. The Polish people tried to form a policy of agreeme nt.They tried to work with the probationers, patiently focusing on social, economical and cultural development of Poland rather than trying any risquà ©, bold actions toward autonomy, which was In the consciousness and hopes of most, but accepted to be a distant dream rather than Immediate possibility. This Is the synthesis of what the philosophy f positivism in Poland meant. Cultural and rustication proved the policy of agreement not that effective. (4) Galatia (which is where Maleness's was born and raised) had the best conditions for the development of â€Å"Polish national life†.The status-Hungarian monarchy had quickly changed to a democratic-liberal state after a series of political failures and guaranteed the many nations that It Incorporated much political freedom. Calla had it's own government, the administrative language was Polish, it had two Universities, in Kara ¶w and Law ¶w as well as many schools. In return for loyalty to the Viennese government they had freedom to manifest their patriotism.. (3) The social situation in Poland was getting worse and worse for the middle class: the cheap labor and was the reason for massive migration from the country to cities and their rapid growth.The proletariat was exploited, and they were becoming unhappy. They were turning into a massive socio-political force, that could demand change. Industrialization was taking it's toll, the market was being flooded with factory-made consumables and was creating an atmosphere of depressing, Lourdes uniforms. The young characterized the â€Å"midyear† (which translates into soap-maker), the townsman, owner of a small business or property, whose sole philosophy was common materialism, his only values were money, his only goal was gathering goods and only norm and rule of conduct opportunism and looking for the easy way out.Modernism all around Europe, was a broad avian-grade movement that started as a result of rapid cultural changes and transformations in the modern world. All modernism shared the feeling that the modern world was substantially different and hat â€Å"art needed to renew itself by confronting and exploring it's own modernity' (2). In Poland specifically it was triggered by feeling of being shut off in a hopeless situation. It started with a crisis of values, when positivism which was perhaps the most prevalent and representative world-view had become materialistic and lay, modernism found the metaphysical and transcendental.Artists started going back to Christian ideas (this started in France, one might say as a defensive reaction after the division between church and state in 1871). Christian ideas linked them back to a renewed interest in the Middle Ages. The middle ages led to exploring black and white magic, secret sects and cults, demons and Satanism. Chariot made sensational discoveries in the etiology of madness, and scientists made connections between ideas from the middle ages and modern discoveries tha t led to the creation of parapsychology – the psychology of abnormal, transcendental phenomena.Life and it's tendencies was represented in artwork in a personal fashion, filtered through the artists feelings and thoughts. Modernism, symbolism, nonromantic, decadence, was all encompassed in one particular movement, under the banner of Ewing young: Young Germany, Young Belgium, Young Vienna, Young Scandinavia and of course Young Poland. The first painting I shall discuss is the 1894 â€Å"Melancholia† which translates to â€Å"melancholy'. The painting shows an artists studio, a painter's studio to be precise.On the left side, at the top we can see the infinitesimal figure of the painter, concentrated on the task in front of him on the easel. A cacophony of figures pours out of the canvas the artist is currently working on. They are all allegorical fugues, personifying the tragically history of Poland in the XIX century. You can tell by their loathing and attributes tha t they are representations of various layers of society. Upraises, women in tears of despair, convicts in handcuffs and peasant soldiers.It seems that the figures are arranged in chronological order, starting with youngsters on the brighter left side, near the artists, ending with old men on the contrasting right. The young seem to be looking forward with faces full of conferment and pain. Of the painting we see a dynamic, chaotic mass of writhing figures. Most are looking angrily towards the window. At the bottom of the artwork they seem to be floating above the ground focusing on fighting one another rather than looking toward the main focus of the painting which is the lady shrouded in black, who is on the windowsill, looking outside into the sunny garden.I think that this lady is Melancholy. She is guarding the window, the gate to freedom. There is an old man on the windowsill looking at her with despair, another in the middle facing her with his hands holding his shirt back as if to say â€Å"stab me! Kill me! â€Å". It's quite obvious that the Polish viewer will interpret this painting as a representation of Polish history that had oaken place in the last century, but this painting is actually said to be one of the first examples of Symbolism in the Visual Arts in Young Poland (1).It shows patriotic historical content but not directly but rather through a metaphor. Maleness's didn't try to find or manifest universal truths but rather showed his own subjective view on the situation in his country. My interpretation is that he was showing the futility of the national uprisings, the armed excursions, the suffering and the hopes of revolt, through the woman blocking the passage to freedom.

A Secret Weapon for Social Issues Sociology

A Secret Weapon for Social Issues Sociology What the In-Crowd Won't Tell You About Social Issues Sociology The gain in mass shootings throughout the USA has brought the matter of gun control into the spotlight as a social matter. For instance, a high unemployment rate which affects millions of people is a social matter. There are a number of methods people use to combat social troubles. Although there are different problems that can be credited to this, the general cause of these has become the failure by the state to deal with the requirements of its citizens well. Have a look to be acquainted with 15 of the most often encountered troubles that young folks face due to the society. It is crucial to understand that not all things that happen in society are raised to the amount of social troubles. You're building a photo of a social issue, and you want to bring up every potential side of the story. When you look around, you are going to observe social issues that affect society daily. When many individuals dwell in urban environments for work opportunities, unemployment is still an issue in a lot of them. They must become actively involved in discussing the problem. Social problems often involve issues that impact the actual world. Social Issues Sociology - Overview In order to reduce costs and keep product prices down companies are made to outsource manufacturing to other nations. There have been a lot of studies that have shown inequalities in how the British citizens have access to health services. The coverage of the welfare is extremely extensive but on the opposite hand the advantages and the services are delivered at a minimal level. It is problematic for people to discover solutions for social problems alone. You also receive a nice opportunity to dig more into research! Short and informative should become your goal. Also, sociological problems have a tendency to be terribly unwieldy for anybody unfamiliar with Sociology. Then there are the wellness concerns. Infectious diseases are often public health concerns since they can spread quickly and readily, affecting huge quantities of members. As a consequence, social issues can be raised by the unequal distribution of funding between public schools, including that seen in the United States of america. Societal effect on teenage smoking. Odds are, all you have to do is relax and locate a topic you're passionate about and, naturally, one that's debatable. There are only 24 hours in one day, and it's sad a young person has been predicted to do so much in a limited moment. It's important to select debatable argumentative essay topics since you need opposing points you may counter to your own points. Jenna does not have any idea how they are going to cope financially or emotionally. The Death of Social Issues Sociology Utilize whatever you know to reveal your knowledge of the Earth, and bring out good old philosophical theories. In scenarios of bull ying in schools, it's important that the issue needs to be reported to parents and teachers whenever possible. Each circumstance differs. There's no doubt that it's effective in the feeling that public humiliation is among our best fears and we try to prevent any situation that would make us a social stigma. It is contingent on the matter and the response of the members of the society also. Romantic attraction to someone's values would be wanting to get emotional intimacy with somebody due to their values, beliefs or ideologies. Society is a complicated phenomenon with a large number of intricacies. It increases the understanding of the society.

Erik Erikson Psychosocial Stages Of Personality Development

Assessment 3 Part B Topic 2 Erik Erikson Erik Erikson - Psychosocial Stages. Erikson’s ideas were greatly influenced by Sigmund Freud in regards to the structure of personality. (Freud’s ID, EGO and SUPEREGO) Erikson has since expanded on Freud’s theory by focusing on characteristic of the ego, and expanding the stages of personality development to include the entire lifespan. Erikson emphasized on the role that culture and society play in the development of humans and the effects that they have. According to Erikson â€Å"the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society† Unlike Freud focusing on the psychosexual ideas, Erikson focused on how children socialized and how this affected their own sense of one’s self. Erikson created a lifespan model of development, this consists of five stages up to the age of 18 years old and a further three stages well into adulthood. Erikson implied that there is still a lot of room for continued growth and development throughout a person’s life. Erikson emphasised on the adolescent period of ones life, feeling it was the crucial stage for developing a person’s identity. Erikson believed that we all are predisposed to having the urge to complete these stages he has stated this to be â€Å"the epigenic principle.† Erikson stated that â€Å"a crises occurs at each stage of development.† for Erikson, these crises areShow MoreRelatedErik Erikson s Theory Of Psychosocial Development884 Words   |  4 PagesErik Erikson Erik Erikson was born June 15, 1902. Erikson is best-known for his famous theory of psychosocial development and the concept of the identity crisis. His theories marked an important shift in thinking on personality; instead of focusing simply on early childhood event, his psychosocial theory looked at how social influences contribute to personality throughout the entire lifespan. Erik Erikson died May 12, 1994 due to prostate cancer. (Erik Erikson, 2015). Stages of Psychosocial DevelopmentRead MoreErik Erikson s Theory Of Psychosocial Development1359 Words   |  6 Pages Erik Erikson â€Å"There is in every child at every stage a new miracle of vigorous unfolding.† And no matter who you are and what you do, I believe that everyone will go through stages in their life. Erik Erikson was a famous psychologist in the twentieth – century, where he developed â€Å"Psychosocial stages†. Erikson’s theories centered on issues that were met on specific ages in someone’s life. Love, care, and tender is critical and many parents do not realize how much nurturing and caring for a childRead MoreErikson’S Contributions To Human Development. Erik Erikson1033 Words   |  5 PagesErikson’s Contributions to Human Development Erik Erikson was a man whose interests varied widely. He studied art and a variety of languages during his schooling. He did not prefer the atmosphere of formal schooling and decided to travel around Europe instead of going to college (â€Å"Erik Erikson†, 1997). He then returned to Germany for art school and later on taught to children who had come for Freudian training. He became Boston’s first child analyst and obtained a position at Harvard Medical SchoolRead MoreApplication Of The Personality Theories Developed By Erik Erikson And Raymond Cattell1724 Words   |  7 PagesApplication of the Personality Theories Developed by Erik Erikson and Raymond Cattell â€Å"Personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a person unique. It arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life† (Cherry, 2014). 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He was born on June 15, 1902 in Frankfurt, Germany. His unnamed Danish biological father abandoned Erik’s mother before he was born. Erik was raised by his mother, Karla Abrahamsen, for the first three years and she married Dr. Theodor Homberger in 1905. His mother and stepfather raised him and Erik took his stepfather’s name, Erik Abrahamsen. Erik had blond hair, blue eyes, and NordicRead MoreDevelopmental Psychologist Erik Erikson s Stages Of Psychosocial Development1729 Words   |  7 PagesDevelopmental psychologist Erik Erikson changed the way that people viewed the psychosocial development in humans throughout their lifespan. Using the foundation provided by Freud’s psychosexual stages, he modified the concepts to where they demonstrated external impacts on development as well as making it more about emotional conflicts than necessarily physical drives. This eight-stage theory is sequential, and requires the person to overcome conflicts in each stage to become a productive memberRead MoreErik Erikson : Psychosocial Development1103 Words   |  5 PagesErik Erikson: Psychosocial Stages of Development â€Å"Erik Erikson was best-known for his famous theory of psychosocial development and the concept of the identity crisis. His theories marked and important shift in thinking on personality; instead of focusing simply on early childhood events, his psychosocial theory looked at how social influences contribute to personality throughout the entire lifespan† (Cherry). This paper will discuss Erikson’s childhood and the influence it had on his work. AlsoRead MoreErik Erikson s Psychosocial Theory On Child Development1388 Words   |  6 PagesErik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory on Child Development Erik Erikson, a well known developmental theorist, developed his theory about stages of human development from birth to death by using Freud s work as a starting point. According to Erikson, personality develops in a series of stages. Erikson found out that children experience conflicts which affect their development. He described the internal conflict which children go through in developmental stages using the term ‘crisis’ and are based onRead MoreIndustry Vs Inferiority Or Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory And Self-Adolency1444 Words   |  6 Pagesmore complete in describing what it takes for the grade school child to develop mastery and competence, Erik Erikson Industry versus inferiority or Albert Bandura social learning theory and self-efficacy. 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Factitious Disorders - 1539 Words

FACTITIOUS DISORDER Facticious means artificial or unnatural, a definition that could not be more appropriate. People who suffer from factitious disorder (FD) â€Å"are great con men or con women, although what they obtain through their conning most people would far rather not have†[1]. The earliest accounts of factitious disorders are recorded in the times of Galen, a Roman physician in the second century A.D. The term ‘factitious’ itself, is derived from a book, published in 1843 by Gavin, On Feigned and Factitious Diseases. Most aggressive study of the disorder began in 1950s, when an article published by a British psychiatrist, Richard Asher who initiated use of the term, Munchausen’s Syndrome[i], to describe a subtype of†¦show more content†¦Specific symptoms |Specific symptoms (n*=47) |number of cases (% of all cases) | |Dramatic (false) stories |36 (77%) | |Care eliciting behaviors [Total = 40 (85%)] |suicidal threats and gestures |13 (28%) | | |factitious disorders - physical |28 (60%) | | |other |5Show MoreRelatedMunchausen Syndrome : A Rare Mental Disorder And The Most Severe Type Of Factitious Disorder3346 Words   |  14 Pagessyndrome is a rare mental disorder and the most severe type of factitious disorder. Those afflicted with Munchausen syndrome fabricate or cause injuries and illness in order to seek attention even to the point of undergoing painful, intrusive and unneeded medical and surgical procedures. Psychotherapy is the main treatment option for Munchausen syndrome, however there are no standard therapies or medications for treatment. Medications may be utilized for other mental disorders that the patient mayRead MoreAnalysis Of Mommy Dead And Dearest1146 Words   |  5 Pagesfinally realized that she was perfectly fine, she was not mentally incapacitated, her whole life was a lie. Like I mentioned in my introduction, Dee Dee has a disorder Although Gypsy was the one who was made out to be ill her whole life, it was Dee Dee who had the real issue. It is thought that Dee Dee had what is known as factitious disorder, more commonly referred to as Munchausen by proxy. An individual with Munchausen by proxy will fake symptoms in a victim, or even go so far as to induce physicalRead MoreEssay Taking a Closer Look at Mà ¼nchausen Syndrome1026 Words   |  5 Pages Mà ¼nchausen syndrome is a psychiatric disorder that is distinguished by the patient causing or faking physical or psychological ailments for the sole purpose of being admitted to the hospital. A psychiatric consult nurse sees about one or two Mà ¼nchausen cases a month (Interview with John Hauber, RN). Out of the entire United States population, only half to two percent of people have the disorder (medicinenet.com), but the number is probably higher than that because the statistic shown only representsRead MoreDefinition Of Labeling Theory And Strain Theory2241 Words   |  9 PagesBeverley’s actions and why she acted in this manner can be explained from the psychiatric, sociological and psychological perspective. Psychiatry viewpoints explore the motivation behind an individual’s criminal behaviour. Factitious disorder and multiple personality disorder can explain the reasons behind Beverly’s choice to kill four children under her care, and the reasons behind these horrendous acts. The sociological perceptive looks at factors including level of education, a persons socialRead MoreThe Case Of Leslie Wilfred1743 Words   |  7 Pagesthe couple asked the community for donations to pay for medical bills. Leslie then brought up her other child who was supposedly raped by a former co-worker when she was 11-years-old. Leslie stated how her children suffered from psychological disorders, yet the children were so well dressed and looked healthy, that the community never questioned their illnesses. Throughout all these statements, Chris was told that Leslie would handle all the bills and treatments, so he did not have to worry aboutRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Psychiatric Disorders1369 Words   |  6 Pagesmany unexplained disorders. Most of these psychiatric disorders occur for no reason and without conscious control. However, in the section of somatic symptom disorders there exists diagnoses of people with factitious disorder whom intentionally pretend illness in order to fulfill their emotional needs. For the FD client, there is a strong urge to assume the role of â€Å"patient.† The disorders one witnesses are actually the client feigning symptoms of sickness. Thus the word factitious translates in LatinRead MoreThe Dsm Diagnostic Process Can Be Broken Down Into Six Essential Steps1483 Words   |  6 Pagessteps. Step one consists of ruling out Malingering and Factitious Disorder. Step two entails ruling out a substance etiology. Step three involves ruling out an etiological medical condition. Step four consists of determining the specific primary disorder(s). Step five comprises differentiating Adjustment Disorder from the residual Other Specified and Unspecified conditions. Step six involves establishing the boundary with no mental disorder. These six steps provide a diagnostic framework for cliniciansRead MoreMunchausen Syndrome : A Mental Illness Essay1470 Words   |  6 Pages Munchausen syndrome, also referred to as factitious disorder, is a mental condition in which sufferers cause or pretend to have physical or psychological symptoms that are not actually occurring. Munchausen syndrome is considered to be a mental illness because it is associated with severe emotional difficulties that are present with the illness. Due to the fact that there are no reliable statistics regarding the number of people in the United States who suffer from Munchausen syndrome, it is consideredRead MoreA Brief Note On The Medical Child Abuse1929 Words   |  8 Pagesabuse Denise Eversole Lord Fairfax Community College Abstract Munchausen by Proxy Syndrome (MBPS) is a disorder of which should bring awareness to the medical field. It is not well understood and brings a lot of controversy. This disorder is when a parent, usually the mother, who purposely causes illness to her child rather physically or emotionally. The disorder was named after Baron von Munchausen, from the 18th century who gained fame from his tales. The child only becomes sickRead MoreExplain The Etiological Models Of Schizophrenia Essay2151 Words   |  9 Pages†¢ Environmental o Dutch Famine ï‚ § Evidence of in utero effect - early prenatal famine shown to be greatly associated with three conditions (congenital anomalies of the central nervous system, schizophrenia, and schizophrenia spectrum personality disorders) o Viruses ï‚ § In utero viral exposure possible risk factor for development of schizophrenia – when influenza rates were higher than seasonally expected, birth rates of future schizophrenics were higher than seasonally expected o Season of Year ï‚ §

Ethics with Humans in Psychology Wjec Free Essays

Using relevant examples explain why ethical issues are important in research with human participants in psychology (15m) Rachael Guthrie – 532 words. When using human participants in research there are many ethical issues which need to be considered and dealt with appropriately in order to protect the participants from any physical or psychological harm. BPS guidelines have been produced in an attempt to protect any human participants in psychological research and to prevent disturbing research similar to that which has taken place in the past occurring. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethics with Humans in Psychology Wjec or any similar topic only for you Order Now One ethical issue which must be considered is deception. It is unfair to deceive participants as they are agreeing to something that they believe is true when in fact, the aim of the research differs from their beliefs. Deception may lead to confusion and distress in certain research and participants may be disappointed or humiliated when they find out that they have been lied too. One study that involved deception is Asch’s research into conformity, his participants were unaware of the fact that the other people taking part in the study were confederates that were deliberately giving the wrong answer, the participant felt confused when the others were giving an obviously incorrect answer. However, Asch would not have been able to carry out his research in this way if the participant knew about the procedure of the study as they then would have known what Asch was expecting and why the others were giving the wrong answer. There are many studies in the past which have involved deception or harm to participants. The researcher has responsibility for their participants and should ensure that they are not at risk of any physical or psychological harm. Zimbardo’s study was one of the most unethical and had to be ended after just 6 days after the participants became extremely distressed after taking on the role of prisoners or prison guards, although he did ensure that consent was gained prior to the study taking place, ensuring that the participants knew what they were taking part in. Milgram’s study also involved psychological harm and deception, the participants believed that they were giving the other participant an electric shock, this led to them becoming extremely distressed, some even has seizures. However, 87% of Milgram’s participants were pleased to have taken part and suffered no lasting damage, instead, some learned something of value about themselves. A study into personal space invasions in the lavatory by Middlemist, Matter and Knowles breached many ethical guidelines as their articipants were deceived without giving any consent or the right to withdraw. They suffered embarrassment and violation as their privacy had been invaded without them knowing. When considering ethics in psychology there are three things that committees will take into account; what rules have been broken, the benefits of the study and if there was another way to do it. For example, Zimbardo could’ve carried out his study in a ‘real life’ priso n. If the benefits of research are greater than the distress caused to an individual participant, e. g. the effects are minor then the research is more likely to be passed by an ethics committee. Whilst ethical guidelines exist and researchers are required to be aware of them, they are not legally binding and so this creates a loophole through which some less ethical studies can still fall through. How to cite Ethics with Humans in Psychology Wjec, Essay examples

Assess the Validity of Dworkin’s Criticisms Towards Positivism free essay sample

DworkinCritically assess the validity of Dworkin’s criticisms towards positivism and whether natural law theory may itself be disputed. â€Å"Positivism is a model of and for a system of rules, and its central notion of a single fundamental test for law forces us to miss the important standards that are rules. † explains Dworkin on his attack on positivism. It is argued, by Dworkin, that both legal positivism and natural law theories are in reality searching for an answer to the question ‘what is law? A  fundamental question and challenge towards the debate and critique of the natural lawyer and positivist. However Dworkin directs towards another issue, a more specific question of understanding law, gained by asking ‘how do judges find the law’2. This directs attention towards ‘hard cases’3, a theory provided by legal positivism. It is explained by Dworkin that judges make use of standards that do not function as a system of rules, as opposed to what Hart would argue, but operate differently as other sorts of standards4. Hart, a positivist theorist, would argue that in the majority of cases rules will be clear, however, at some point, they will become indeterminate and unclear5. This is because they have what Hart calls, an ‘open texture’, and a defect inherent in Dworkin, R. (1997) Taking Rights Seriously, London: Duckworth. At p22 Morrison, W. (1997) Jurisprudence: from the Greeks to Post-Modernism, London: Cavendish. At p422 3 A concept where the law seems to run out, they arise where it is not clear what the legal answer is, or where by the existing rules of law provide no answer. Riddall, J. He distinguishes between these two to explain that policies attempt to ‘secure the community goal’ where as principles ‘justify political decisions’ by showing that the decision respects or secures some individual or group right. 8 This goal is set out to generally improve the community. 9 In nature principles, unlike Harts rules, can be applied or not applied without affecting there existence, a court will draw on these standards in order to reach a decision on the ‘hard case’10. With this submission, it is in disrepute with Hart’s notion of the ‘Rule of Recognition’. For instance, officials in Nazi Germany obeyed Hitler’s commands as law, only out of fear. Dworkin compares both Harts and John Austin’s11 theory to say that there would be no difference between a group of people accepting a rule of recognition and simply falling into a self-conscious pattern of obedience out of fear12. Dworkin continues to explain that if acceptance requires more than obedience, then there was no law in Nazi Germany. He thus believes that it is inadequate, notably as Ibid Lectures in Jurisprudence (ed. Cambell), p. 219; post, 1421, quoted in Freeman, M. D. A. Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, 7th ed. , London: Sweet Maxwell. At p1390 8 Supra, n , no1 at p82 9 Riddall, J. G. (1999) Jurisprudence, 2nd ed. , London: Butterworths. at p101 10 Wacks, R. (1999) Jurisprudence, 5th ed. , London: Blackstones Press. At p120 11 A theory that a proposition of law is true within a particular political society if it correctly reports the past command of the sovereign power. 12 Dworkin, R. (1986) Law’s Empire, Oxford: Hart Publishing. At p35 7 6 Page 2 of 13 20325011 there is no rule of recognition that distinguishes between legal and moral principles. Therefore Hart’s theory does not capture how lawyers find law and therefore lacks a justificatory force. 14 It is explained, furthermore, that if two rules conflict, both cannot survive one must be incorrect. Principles are different; they do not apply to all or nothing but apply together as they have weight, thus balances for the person’s rights15. It is important to note that the word ‘principle’ is not used in the sense that it requires compliance with a standard regardless of the consequences16, Dworkin uses it to mean ‘propositions that describe rights’17. His challenge continues; the idea to separate law and morality is incorrect, not so far that law should be based purely on morality18. For instance, the infamous case of Donoghue v Stevenson19, the biblical ‘principle’ not to harm your neighbour effectively becomes a legal principle, therefore morality is inherent in law. Lord Atkin has constructively developed a principle, the neighbour principle, to be applied in future arising situations20. Furthermore, the case of Riggs v Palmer21 forms the basis of Dworkins illustration on how legal principles work where the judges ‘found’ and applied an equitable principle Dworkin argues that this decision demonstrates that in addition to rules, the law includes principles23. The answer was already inherent in society, a substantial belief by Dworkin, that there is a right answer to every legal question, thus not acting retrospectively opposed to what Hart believed that there is no law covering a particular gap or situation24. According to Dworkin, there in fact lie principles. Hart would state that judges must use there discretion in deciding whether a particular case comes within a rule or not, by way of statutory interpretation25. Hart continues to explain that there is no possibility of treating the question raised by the various cases as if there were only one right answer, a solid belief by Dworkin that there is a right answer26. However, Dworkin argues against this approach which allows for a judge to make a policy decision not based on law in ‘hard cases’. He argues that by Hart seeing law soles based on a system of rules; he fails to take account of general principles27. In contrast, Dworkin challenges that the judge does not revert to a policy and act as a law maker; instead the judge applies legal principles to bring about a correct right answer based on law. Dworkins’ article, Hard Cases, continues to say that judges must apply a principle of, what he calls ‘articulate consistency’ in determining the applicability of statutes and Doherty, M. (2005) Jurisprudence Textbook: the Philosophy of Law, 4th ed. , London: Old Bailey Press. At p228 23 Wacks, R. (1999) Jurisprudence, 5th ed. , London: Blackstones Press. At p123 24 Supra, n , no 10 at p228 25 Supra, n , no5 . At p158 26 The concept of Law, at p132 quoted in Freeman, M. D. A. (2001) Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, 7th ed. , London: Sweet Maxwell. He uses the word ‘consistency’ to refer to the application of the principle relied upon, not the application of the rule. There was no rule in Riggs v Palmer30, only a principle that a person should not benefit from their crime31. Besides Dworkin sees the law as a seamless web in which there is always a uniquely right answer and strongly rejects Hart’s view that there are ‘penumbral areas of doubt’ within which a judge can exercise free discretion32. This is opposed to Dworkins’ strong belief that judges do not have a wide discretion when the rules seem to run out33. This directs attention towards the fictional judge developed by Dworkin, Hercules J. He is a judge with superhuman skill, learning, patience and acumen34 used to illustrate an idealistic process, fundamentally essential to his construction35. This judge is expected to construct a scheme of abstract and concrete principles that provides a coherent justification for all common law precedents and is intended to point the way to the correct legal answer36. He will decide on a theory of law which best coheres with his community. Arguably, for that reason, Hercules is deciding cases in the light of what already exists. Dworkin says that we can assume that Hercules accepts most of the settled rules of his jurisdiction, laying down the characteristics of law. 37 Supra, n , no 2 at p426 (1889) 22 NE 188 31 Supra, n , no 1 at p88 32 Supra, n , no 10 at p225 33 Waldron, J. (2009) ‘Refining the question about judges’ moral capacity’. International Journal of Constitutional Law. 69-82 34 Supra, n , no 1 at p105 and Freeman, M. D. A. (2001) Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, 7th ed. However, Hercules is criticised on the grounds that he is a mythical being, no judge can behave in this Utopian style40, thus perhaps lacking ecological validity41. Some have gone so far as to label him a fraud, an assumption that he has discovered the right answer to a hard case, arrogantly assuming his conception of the law is correct. 42 However in Laws Empire, based on theoretical disagreements in law, Dworkin responds explaining that Hercules does not pretend that he has found the ‘right’ answer but he has only discovered what it should be, a significant difference to his terminology43. This then brings light to Dworkins’ ‘one right answer’ theory, which must not be assumed by this rather assumptive statement. As already briefly explored, it is the proposition that there is only one single uniquely ‘right’ answer to all legal questions44. He agrees that through judicial precedent, judges agree that earlier decisions have a particular gravitational force45. A judge will rarely have the independence to be inconsistent with this notion by the fact that they acknowledge that they are bound by a hierarchy of previous judicial decisions46. When a judge Supra, n , no 9 At p94 Ibid at p94 40 Supra, n , no17 . At p131. The term Utopian is a name for an ideal community or society. 41 A psychological term relating to the applicability of a matter to ‘real’ life. 42 Ibid commenting on that the theory travels badly. 43 Dworkin, R. (1986) Law’s Empire, Oxford: Hart Publishing. At p261 44 Sadurski, W. (2009) ‘Rights and moral reasoning: an unstated assumption a comment on Jeremy Waldrons Judges as moral reasoners’. International Journal of Constitutional Law. 25-42 45 Supra, n , no5 . At p167 46 Ibid at p168 39 38 Page 6 of 13 20325011 defines this precedent, only the arguments of principle are taken  into account to justify that principle47. Furthermore, in the light of this point, Dworkin continues his argument with the analogy of a chess game; perhaps not the most enthused of illustrations. In the course of the game one player is significantly distracted by the other player (named Tal) persistently smiling. Though this act may not be in breach of the ‘chess rule book’, Dworkin would argue that on an analysis of what the game of chess essentially entails, similar to how a judge should decide a hard case; psychological intimidation would have been deemed against the nature of the game48. The referee ought to find the one answer that best fits with the general practice of chess. Additionally, leading to another of Dworkins’ challenges, the rule already existing prior to the game, it does not act retrospectively. This term retrospection relates to that in hard cases judges have discretion to decide the outcome, making new law, consequently it acts retrospectively, and a defect in Dworkins’ conventionalist view of law49. However in the light of Dworkins’ view, a party claiming injustice through retrospection is in fact bound by a law that was already available to anyone, if sought in the proper way. The decision merely gave effect to this existential law. 50 It must now be considered where Dworkin himself fits in with either positivism or natural law. Officially, he is contemporary legal positivism’s harshest critic. It is verified from the above analysis and chapter one in Laws Empire that he is not a 47 48 Supra, n , no13 . At p28 Supra, n , no 17 at p125 49 Supra, n , no 19 at p99 50 Supra, n , no 9 at p107 Page 7 of 13 20325011 positivist in the sense that where the law seems to run out, the judge creates a new fitting law, termed as conventionalism, a strong rejection by Dworkin51. His connection with the ‘right answer theory’ may be said to tie with morality, if the right answer is the best fit, it is the best morally fit answer, it would not be the best fit answer, if it was immoral thus coinciding with natural law52. Like Fuller, Dworkin accepts that moral reasoning in an integral part of legal reasoning therefore morality is part of the law, though in Dworkins’ view it is not necessarily connected. Both theories argue that lawyers follow criteria that are not entirely factual but to some extent moral for deciding what propositions of law are true53. Continuing this exploration, Dworkin believes that the law and adjudication ought to comply with certain standards, notably those embodied in the phrase ‘Law as Integrity’, one of the three rival theories of law which Dworkin constructs and challenges54, again he seems to lean more towards natural law. However, Dworkin makes his position clear that he does not believe in higher principles above and outside the law, as an everlasting sovereign power. Instead he believes that justice has a merit in its own right. 55 On this basis Dworkin believes that adjudication ought to operate in compliance with the standards, and in his view not to the principles of God but to what is right. He does not link morality with the validity of law, this does not concern him. Thus he may rather be placed as a jurist who explores the nature of both illustrating an ideal Supra, n , no6 at p109 Simmonds, N. (2008) ‘Law as a Moral Idea’. Edinburgh Law Review. 150-153 53 Supra, n , no12 at p37 54 Freeman, M. D. A. (2001) Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, 7th ed. He has merely shown that a sensible account of law would have a place for principles as well as rules57. This leads to further analysis, focussing now to the theory of ‘Law as Integrity’, a theory showing our legal practice at its best light58. Dworkin, though his term remains illusive, claims that it offers a plan for adjudication which points judges to use ‘integrity’ as a method for deciding cases. The theory explains that propositions of law are true if they follow the principles of justice, fairness and ‘procedural due process’ which provide the best constructive interpretation of the community’s legal practice59. As already seen Hercules acts with integrity and may be said to be a constructive interpreter of the laws written before him60. Integrity insists that legal claims are interpretive judgements and consequently rejects the question whether judges find or invent law61. This method essentially would instruct a judge to identify legal rights and duties, on an assumption that they are created by one author representing a community expressing a ‘coherent conception of justice and fairness’62. Dworkin argues that with this one author or separate entity, the judges can assume that the law is structured on coherent principles63. The judge, following integrity, would look for a principle that, according to Dworkin, ‘fits and justifies’64 a complex part of the legal practice. This, Supra, n , no 9 At p110 Supra, n , no 1 At p58 58 Supra, n , no 34 At p1396 59 Doherty, M. Therefore a society adopts integrity in order to justify its moral authority to assume and organise control of coercive force66. However positivism does not require judges to justify their decisions. In this way, positivism does not consider the law as being separate and independent. Instead the positivist would see the law as comprising a set of ‘discrete’ decisions, enabling a judge to exercise his discretion to amend it, contrary to what Dworkin argues67. Dworkin explains that the consistency that would be provided from integrity would entitle people to a coherent and ethical extension of past decisions. Positivism would deny this on the basis that it denies consistency in principle as a judicial virtue for ambiguous statutes and unclear precedents to try to achieve consistency68, a point which is emphasised by Hercules. Furthermore Dworkin believes that an adoption of an approach, whereby a judge ‘ought’ to operate in the society Dworkin thinks ‘ought’ to exist70, would protect against prejudice, dishonesty, and corruption whilst promoting participation in democracy71. However not all judges will come to the same conclusion. Even though they were seeking the correct answer, many may find a different route and therefore end in a different place. Concluding, Dworkin is the leading critic of positivism, and in particular, Harts own version of it. Dworkin believes that the law never runs out and that the answer is always there readily available if the matter is sought properly. He disagrees with Hart as he insists that at the point of where the law is incomplete, judges must use their discretion to reach a solution, a new law to fill in that gap75. His right answer theory attacks this largely on the basis that there are standards other than rules operative in our society. He challenges natural law as a particularly unpersuasive theory, an extreme theory that insists that law is dependant on morality and identical to justice76, as explored in this essay, Dworkin differs as he does not link morality with the validity of law. He is unconvinced with an everlasting sovereign and believes that justice has a merit in its own right. He is not a natural lawyer nor a positivist but rather a jurist, challenging and illustrating an ideal form for this process of adjudication77. â€Å"That is†¦what law is for us: for the people we want to be and the community we aim to have. Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, 7th ed. , London: Sweet Maxwell. McCoubrey, H. White, N. D. (1999) Textbook on Jurisprudence, 3rd ed. , London Blackstone Press. Morrison, W. (1997) Jurisprudence: from the Greeks to Post-Modernism, London: Cavendish. Riddall, J. G. (1999) Jurisprudence, 2nd ed. , London: Butterworths. Wacks, R. (1999) Jurisprudence, 5th ed. , London: Blackstones Press. Journals Lester, A. (1993) ‘English Judges as Law Makers’ Public law 269-290 MacCormick, N (2008) ‘Our Knowledge of the Law: Objectivity and Practice in Legal Theory’ Edinburgh Law Review 150-153 Patterson, D. Dworkin on the semantics of legal and political concepts’ Oxford Journal of Legal Studies. 545-557 Sadurski, W. (2009) ‘Rights and moral reasoning: an unstated assumption a comment on Jeremy Waldrons Judges as moral reasoners’. International Journal of Constitutional Law. 25-42 Seims, M, M. (2008) ‘Legal originality’. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies. 147-164 Simmonds, N. (2008) ‘Law as a Moral Idea’.